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NASA Procedures and Guidelines |
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| | TOC | ChangeHistory | Preface | Chapter1 | Chapter2 | Chapter3 | Chapter4 | Chapter5 | Chapter6 | Chapter7 | Chapter8 | AppendixA | AppendixB | AppendixC | AppendixD | AppendixE | AppendixF | AppendixG | AppendixH | ALL | | |||||
Though format is important, clarity is even more important. The following techniques and guidelines can help make your writing more organized, natural, and concise.
2.1.1. Follow the newspaper format. Open with the most important information and decrease to the least important. Avoid mere chronology.
2.1.2. Start fast, explain as necessary, then stop. When writing a letter, think about the one key sentence that expresses the main idea. Do not waste the opening--the strongest place in a letter. Begin with the key sentence, if appropriate; if not, be sure it appears by the end of the first paragraph. Put requests before justifications, answers before explanations, conclusions before discussions, and summaries before details.
2.1.3. Key points. In a complex proposal or a reply to various questions, there may be many key points. In these cases, begin with a general statement of purpose, such as the policy directives. The following examples demonstrate this technique:
a. We inspected the Engineering Department on January 24, 1997, and found its overall performance satisfactory.
b. We request authorization to hire a full-time clerk typist or to reassign someone from the word processing center.
c. This memorandum summarizes initial plans for reorganizing the Personnel Department.
2.1.4. Be direct. Occasionally, you may delay a main point to soften bad news or to introduce a controversial proposal. However, do not delay routinely. Readers, like listeners, are deterred by those who take too long to get to the point. In most cases, it is best to be direct.
2.1.5. Persuade vs. Inform. When writing to persuade rather than to inform, end strongly--with a forecast, appeal, or implication. When feelings are involved, exit gracefully--with an expression of good will. When in doubt, offer assistance and the name and telephone number of a contact.
2.2.1. Speak and communicate on paper. Because readers hear writing, the most readable writing sounds like people talking to people. To achieve a spoken style, imagine your reader is sitting across the desk from you. If you are writing to many readers and none in particular, talk to one typical reader. Then write with personal pronouns, everyday words, and the other techniques provided in this NPR. Once you have a draft, read it aloud. It should sound like something you might say in person. Whether writing formally or informally, use language you would use in speaking.
2.2.2. Do not use contractions in formal writing.
2.2.3. Speak directly to your readers. Use the imperative mood when preparing administrative documents, especially procedures, "how-to" instructions, and lists of duties. Directness also avoids the passive voice. This style results in guidance that is shorter, crisper, and easier to understand.
SAY: Sign all copies. Provide the draft by Monday.
2.2.4. Focus on your reader's needs. Writing helps you find out what you think; as you compose, you discover ideas. To keep from wandering, analyze your audience in light of your purpose. You should be able to answer these next questions before you begin to write.
What is my purpose?
Who are my readers?
What are their interests?
How much do they know already?
What will make it easy for them to understand or act?
2.3.1. Give your ideas no more words than they deserve. Shorten paragraphs to sentences, sentences to clauses, clauses to phrases, phrases to words, words to pictures, or strike the idea entirely. Keep only what contributes to meaning.
2.3.2. Avoid "it is" and "there is." Unless "it" refers to something mentioned earlier, write around "it is." "It is" constructions tangle sentences, delay meaning, encourage passive verbs, and hide responsibility. Spare only natural expressions such as "it is time to ." and "it is your job to ."
It is my understanding that your program covers medical expenses from such injuries.
I understand that your program covers medical expenses from such injuries.
It is recognized that as the project evolves, there likely will be changes in task definitions and priorities.
We recognize that as the project evolves, task definitions and priorities are likely tochange.
2.3.3. Beware of "there is" and "there are." Most of these delayers can be avoided by simple subtraction or slight manipulation. This technique is illustrated in the following examples:
There are some deadlines that cannot be changed.
Some deadlines cannot be changed.
2.3.4. Shorten wordy expressions. Instead of adding impressive bulk to writing, wordy expressions clutter it by getting in the way of the words that do the important work. Phrases like in order to (to) and a number of (some) are minor ideas that deserve no more than a word apiece. Tap them and move on.
DO NOT SAY |
SAY |
| a number of | some |
| at the present time | now, at present |
| due to the fact that | because |
| for a period of | for |
| for the purpose of | for, to |
| in accordance with | under |
| in an effort to | to |
| in a timely manner | promptly, on time |
| in order to | to |
| in the amount of | for |
| in the near future | soon |
| on a quarterly basis | quarterly |
| the month of June | June |
2.3.5. Beware of "ly" words. Let nouns and verbs do the work. Words ending in "ly" often overmodify writing. They neither save weak ideas nor improve strong ones.
DO NOT SAY (Weak) |
SAY (Strong) |
| I absolutely believe | I believe |
| we certainly agree | we agree |
| successfully complete | complete |
| when totally free | when free |
2.3.6. Cut doublings. Doublings satisfy a yearning for symmetry, for the sound of the second shoe dropping. One writer expresses thanks and gratitude; another, interest and concern. Whatever the differences the writer may see between such synonyms, they are lost on readers. Choose one.
SAY |
| pleased OR delighted |
| stimulating OR interesting |
| review OR comment on |
| help OR support |
2.3.7. Use everyday words. Readers may know that retain means keep and assist means help, but they should not have to translate. Size of vocabulary is less important than skill in manipulating the words that you already know.
DO NOT SAY |
SAY |
| appreciable | many |
| assistance | help |
| capability | can |
| consequently | so |
| demonstrate | show |
| endeavor | try |
| equitable | fair |
| expedite | hurry, speed up |
| forward | send |
| indicate | show |
| magnitude | size |
| methodology | method, way |
| optimum | best, largest |
| preclude | prevent |
| remainder | rest |
| terminate | end |
| timely | prompt |
| utilize | use |
2.3.8. Use short, spoken transitions. Because we use so many transitions, they can inflate or deflate the rest of what we say. Save long, bookish ones for variety.
DO NOT SAY (Bookish) |
SAY (Spoken) |
| consequently | so |
| however | but |
| nevertheless | still |
| therefore | so |
2.3.9. Avoid legalistic language. Let the authority rest in the signature. Write to express rather than impress.
DO NOT SAY (Awkward) |
SAY (Spoken) |
| aforementioned | the, that, those |
| heretofore | until now |
| herewith is | here is |
| notwithstanding | in spite of |
2.4.1. A writer's attitude toward the subject or readers causes relatively few problems in routine letters. The rules are straightforward.
2.4.2. Subordinates may suggest, request, or recommend, but only superiors may direct. Though pronouns are acceptable, do not get personal. Courtesy is required; warmth is not. A neutral tone is preferred.
2.4.3. Because much writing is routine, tone sometimes causes problems when the matter is delicate. The more sensitive the reader or issue, the more careful we must be to promote good will. Tactlessness in writing suggests clumsiness in general. When feelings are involved, one misused word can offend the reader.
2.4.4. Be mindful of rubberstamp endings. They do not improve good letters or save bad ones. To the reader whose request has been denied, an offer of further assistance promises further disappointment. As an example, the following closing sentence should be dropped entirely or incorporated with the rest of the letter.
This setback aside, we hope that you will take advantage of other courses available to you.
2.5.1. As you write, avoid negative language. Unless you have some special reason to caution against something, be positive. If you can accurately express an idea either positively or negatively, express it positively.
2.5.2. The positive statement is usually clearer and briefer. But a negative statement can also be clear. Use it if you are cautioning the reader.
DO NOT SAY (Negative) |
SAY (Positive) |
| The Administrator may not appoint persons other than those qualified by the Personnel Management Agency. | The Administrator must appoint a person qualified by the Personnel Management Agency. |
| It will not be ready until Monday. | It will be ready on Monday. |
| You failed to sign the other copy. | You need to sign the other copy. |
| Opportunity is limited. | Competition is keen. |
2.5.3. Avoid several negatives in one sentence.
DO NOT SAY |
SAY |
| A demonstration project will not be approved unless all application requirements are met. | A demonstration project will be approved only if the applicant meets all requirements. |
2.5.4. It is better to express even a negative in positive form.
DO NOT SAY |
SAY |
| not honest | dishonest |
| did not remember | forgot |
| did not pay any attention to | ignored |
| did not remain at the meeting | left the meeting |
| did not comply with
or |
violated |
2.5.5. "Yes" answers need little explanation. A letter of denial should be explained in enough detail to avoid any hint of a brushoff. Most "no" answers need some explanation.
DO NOT SAY (Negative) |
SAY (Positive) |
| Opportunity is limited. | Competition is keen. |
| Discontinue poor writing. | Begin writing well. |
| The cup is half empty. | The cup is half full. |
2.5.6. Use a positive approach to remove some of the sting from the response. The following examples demonstrate this technique.
a. Given the limited number of spaces available for the management training program, we must take employees who meet the grade-level requirements before considering others.
b. Because of the keen competition, we are unable to select you for the management training program at this time. Those who met the grade-level requirements were considered first.
2.5.7. Open a letter by acknowledging the favorable endorsements, and close by thanking the applicant for his or her years of service. This technique helps to soften the bad news.
2.6.1. Readable sentences are simple, active, affirmative, and declarative. The more a sentence deviates from this structure, the harder the sentence is to understand. Though short sentences will not guarantee clarity, they are usually less confusing than long ones.
2.6.2. State one thing only in each sentence.
2.6.3. Divide long sentences into two or three short sentences. Average 20 words or less when mixing long and short sentences.
2.6.4. Use parallel structure. In parallel structures, sentences and phrases use the same parts of speech to express different ideas. Look for opportunities to arrange two or more equally important ideas so that they look equal. Any sentence over 30 words should be perfectly parallel. Parallel structure is especially important when you use a list. Parallelism saves words, clarifies ideas, and provides balance. This technique is demonstrated in the following examples:
In sentences--
(not parallel)
Their position is that the symposium is a forum for the dissemination of information and is not intended to establish standards.
(parallel, concise, ideas balanced)
Their position is that the symposium is a forum for sharing information and not for setting standards.
(not parallel)
Effective October 1, 1997, addressees will be required to utilize the cost accounts contained in Enclosure 1. Addressees will cease reporting against cost accounts A12, B34, and C45.
(parallel, concise, ideas balanced)
On October 1, 1977, begin using the cost accounts in Enclosure 1, and cease using cost accounts A12, B34, and C45.
(not parallel)
By purchasing this equipment, we would cut down on errors, and expenses in the long run would be reduced.
(parallel, concise, ideas balanced)
By purchasing this equipment, we would reduce errors and expenses.
In a list--
(not parallel)
o The duties of the Executive Secretary of the Administrative Committee are:
o To take minutes of all the meetings; (phrase)
o The Executive Secretary answers all the correspondence;
and (clause)
o Writing of monthly reports. (topic)
(parallel, concise, ideas balanced)
o The duties of the Executive Secretary of the Administrative Committee are--
o To take minutes of all the meetings;
o To answer all the correspondence; and
o To write the monthly reports.
2.6.5. Remove all unnecessary words. Strive for a simple sentence with a subject and verb. Eliminate unnecessary modifiers.
2.6.6. Place key ideas deliberately. Begin and end a sentence with the most important point because ideas gain emphasis when they appear at either end. To mute an idea, place it in the middle. To improve sentences that mumble, place ideas deliberately, place less emphasis on minor ideas, use more parallelism, and use concise sentences. These techniques are demonstrated in the following examples:
a. It has been determined that moving the computer, as shown in Enclosure 1, would allow room for another cabinet to be installed. ("moving the computer" muted)
b. Moving the computer, as shown in Enclosure 1, would allow room for another cabinet. ("moving the computer" stressed)
c. I would like to congratulate you on your selection as our Employee of the Month for December. ("congratulations" muted)
d. Congratulations on your selection as our December Employee of the Month. ("congratulations" stressed)
2.6.7. Place minor ideas in secondary clauses; do not make them the main subject of a sentence.
a. The revised housing allowance tables, which have been mailed to all pay offices, are effective October 1, 1997. ("date" stressed)
b. The revised housing allowance tables, which are effective October 1, 1997, have been mailed to all pay offices. ("mailing" stressed)
2.6.8. Be concise. An occasional sentence of six words or fewer grabs the reader's attention. This is an excellent technique to make a key point. This technique is illustrated in the following example:
I can get more information if each of you gives me less. Here is why. In a week, around 50 staff actions appear in my In box. I could handle that if all I did was work the In box. Yet 70 percent of my time is dedicated to attending briefings. I could handle that dilemma, too - listening to briefings and thinking about staff papers at the same time. However, I do not.
2.6.9. Use questions in your writing. A request gains emphasis when it ends with a question mark. Look for opportunities to reach out to your reader. This technique is demonstrated in the following example:
Request this office be notified as to whether the conference has been rescheduled.
Has the conference been rescheduled? (preferred)
2.7.1. Long paragraphs overwhelm ideas and impede the reader's progress. You can improve clarity by using short, compact paragraphs. Each paragraph should deal with a single, unified topic. Cover one topic completely before beginning another. Present lengthy, complex, or technical discussions in a series of related paragraphs or as an Appendix.
2.7.2. Use short paragraphs, especially at the beginning of letters. Long first paragraphs discourage reading.
2.7.3. Call attention to lists of items or instructions by displaying them in subparagraphs or separating by bullets. However, do not use so many levels of subparagraphs that the writing becomes difficult to follow.
2.7.4. Occasionally, use a one-sentence paragraph to highlight an important idea.
2.8.1. Personal pronouns are immediate and easy to understand. They help clarify the "who."
2.8.2. Use the following techniques to help retain the reader's interest:
a. When referring to the Agency, office, or group, use "we," "us," "our." Do not refer to the Agency as "it."
b. When speaking for yourself, use "I," "me," "my."
c. Use "I," "me," and "my" less often, and then only to indicate special concern or warmth.
d. When referring to the reader, stated or implied, use "you."
2.9.1. The active voice eliminates confusion by forcing you to name the actor in a sentence. This construction makes it clear to the reader who is to perform the duty. Use a who-does-what order. This technique is demonstrated in the following example:
Active: The worker inspected the orbiter.
2.9.2 The passive voice makes sentences longer and roundabout. Who is responsible is much less obvious. Passive verbs have a form of the verb "to be" plus the past participle of a main verb:
Passive: The orbiter was inspected by the worker.
Examples of these verb forms include the following words: am, is, are, was, were, be, and been, plus, a main verb usually ending in "en" or "ed." These include "was received," "is being considered," and "has been selected."
2.9.3. The passive voice reverses the natural, active order of English sentences. In the following passive example, the receiver of the action comes before the actor: Passive: The regulation [receiver] was written [verb] by the drafter [actor]. Active: The drafter [actor] wrote [verb] the regulation [receiver].
2.9.4. Passive constructions are confusing. Active sentences must have actors, but passive ones are complete without them. See the following ambiguous passive sentences.
| The material will be delivered. | By whom? |
| The start date is to be decided. | By whom? |
| The figures must be approved. | By whom? |
Putting the actor before the verb forces you to be clear about responsibility.
a. The messenger will deliver the material.
b. The contractor will decide the start date.
c. The administrator must approve the figures.
2.9.5. Use the passive voice only when the actor is unknown, unimportant, or obvious. This does not usually apply in administrative writing.
a. Small items are often stolen.
b. The applications have been mailed.
2.10.1. Expressions with embedded verbs are called "nominals." They are difficult to read and make sentences longer. Action verbs are shorter and more direct.
DO NOT SAY |
SAY |
| give consideration to | consider |
| is applicable to | applies to |
| make payment | pay |
| give recognition to | recognize |
| as concerned with | concerns |
2.10.2. Weak writing uses general verbs, which require extra words to complete their meaning. Hit the verbs--the only words that can do things.
DO NOT SAY |
SAY |
| make preparations for | prepare for |
| make use of | use |
| is indicative of | shows |
| undertake an analysis | analyze |
| as stated in | states |
2.10.3. Avoid the "-ion of," the "-ment of," and the "ize of."
2.11.1 Government writing should be dignified, but it should also rely on plain language.
2.11.2. Avoid jargon and pretentious expressions. To make your writing clearer and easier to read and, thus, more effective--use the simple word.
DO NOT SAY |
SAY |
| construct, fabricate | make |
| initiate, commence | begin |
| terminate | end |
| utilize | use |
| substantial portion | large part |
| afforded an opportunity | allow |
2.11.3. Omit needless words. Do not use compound prepositions and other wordy expressions when the same meaning can be conveyed with one or two words.
DO NOT SAY |
SAY |
| because of the fact that | since (because) |
| call your attention to the fact that | remind you |
| for the period of | for |
| in many cases | often |
| in many instances | sometimes |
| in the nature of | like |
| the fact that he had not succeeded | his failure |
| the question as to whether | whether |
2.11.4. Avoid redundancies. Do not use word pairs, if the words have the same effect or where the meaning of one includes the other.
Word pairs to avoid:
| any and all |
| authorize and direct |
| cease and desist |
| each and every |
| full and complete |
| order and direct |
| means and includes |
| necessary and desirable |
2.11.5. Use concrete words. Government writing is often about abstract subjects. But abstract words can be vague and open to different interpretations. Put instructions in simple, concrete words.
DO NOT SAY |
IF YOU MEAN |
| vehicles | automobiles |
| firearms | rifles |
| aircraft | helicopters |
2.11.6. Do not use words that antagonize. Words can attract or repel readers. It is possible to choose words in our writing that do not make the wrong impression or antagonize our readers. Use words to which people react favorably rather than words that they resent.
USE WORDS LIKE |
RATHER THAN THESE WORDS |
| achieve, benefit, guarantee, reasonable, reliable, service, useful, you, please | allege, blame, waste, alibi, impossible, liable, oversight, unfortunate, wrong. |
2.11.7. Know the difference between "must," "shall," and "will."
2.11.7.1. Study the following meanings:
| Shall | Imposes obligation to act; secondary meaning, prediction of future action; legal and legislative documents commonly use it to indicate obligation to act |
| Will | Predicts future action |
| Must | Imposes obligation, indicates a necessity to act |
| Should | Implies obligation or preference, but not absolute necessity |
| May | Indicates permission to act |
| May not | Indicates a prohibition |
2.11.7.2. Follow these guidelines:
a. Use "will" to predict future action
b. Use "must" to indicate obligation to act (especially in everyday speech).
c. Use "must" or "shall" to indicate obligation to act in legal or regulatory documents (e.g., directives).
d. Do not use "will" to indicate obligation to act.
2.11.8. Avoid split infinitives. The split infinitive offends many readers, so avoid it if you can. (An infinitive is the word "to" followed by a verb.)
DO NOT SAY |
SAY |
| Be sure to promptly reply to the invitation. |
Be sure to reply promptly to the invitation. Be sure to reply to the invitation promptly. |
2.11.9. Avoid noun sandwiches. Administrative writing uses too many noun clusters--groups of nouns "sandwiched" together. Avoid these confusing constructions by using more prepositions. Which meaning is intended becomes clearer when the four-word sandwich is divided.
DO NOT SAY |
SAY |
| Underground mine workers safety protection procedures development. | Development of underground procedures for the protection of the safety of mine workers. |
2.11.10. Do not use gender-specific terminology. Avoid the gender-specific job title.
DO NOT SAY |
SAY |
| crewman | crewmember |
| draftsman | drafter |
| enlisted men | enlisted personnel |
| fireman | firefighter |
| foreman | supervisor |
| manhours | hours worked |
| manpower | personnel, workforce |
DO NOT SAY |
SAY |
| The Administrator or his designee must complete the evaluation form. | The Administrator or the Administrator's designee must complete the evaluation form. |
2.11.11. Know the difference between "which" and "that." Do not substitute "which" for "that" simply because it sounds more elegant. Correctly using "which" vs. "that" could make an important difference in the meaning of what you say. When used as relative pronouns, "that" is defining (it limits the denotation of the antecedent to which it refers), and "which" is nondefining. Think of it this way: "that" limits things being referred to; "which" does not. The differences in the meanings are demonstrated in the following examples:
If only some of the rocket engines ignited, say: "The engines that ignited."
But if all the rocket engines ignited, say: "The engines which ignited."
2.11.12. Avoid unnecessary or complicated references. Many letters need no references at all, while others need refer only to the latest communication in a series. When responding to an earlier communication, subordinate the reference to the main point. An example of a run-on and concise sentence is demonstrated in the following examples, respectively:
a. This is in reply to your conversation with Dr. Jones on August 1, 1999, wherein you requested a copy of the Program Operating Plan, a copy of which is enclosed.
b. Enclosed is the Program Operating Plan you requested from Dr. Jones on August 1, 1999.
2.11.13. Include in the text any reference cited in the reference line.
2.12.1. Do not use acronyms more than necessary. Spell out an acronym the first time it appears, followed by the acronym in parentheses. Capitalize the first letter of each word that constitutes the acronym, as indicated below and as cited in Appendix H. Acronyms.
Flight Readiness Review (FRR)
2.12.2. If an acronym appears only twice or infrequently, spell out the term every time or avoid the acronym entirely.
2.13.1. Study The Gregg Reference Manual, Eight Edition, 1998, Appendix B. Glossary of Computer Terms, before preparing paper or electronic communications containing computer or Internet words.
2.13.2. Use the following styles for expressing Internet words.
a. Internet and Net: Initial cap the "I" and "N," even within a sentence.
b. World Wide Web or WWW or Web or the Web: Initial cap the "W," even within a sentence.
c. Web site and Web page (two words): Initial cap the "W," even within a sentence.
d. Home Page (two words): Initial cap when referring to a specific home page or home page title; e.g., NASA Headquarters Home Page; you may want to develop a home page for your audience.
e. E-mail (electronic mail): Always hyphenated; initial cap the "e" only when used as a heading or at the beginning of a sentence.
2.13.3. Do not use all-capital letters in composing an e-mail message. Generally, it implies that the writer is shouting at the reader.
| TOC | ChangeHistory | Preface | Chapter1 | Chapter2 | Chapter3 | Chapter4 | Chapter5 | Chapter6 | Chapter7 | Chapter8 | AppendixA | AppendixB | AppendixC | AppendixD | AppendixE | AppendixF | AppendixG | AppendixH | ALL | |
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